Human Social Behavior

Social psychology experiment

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Applied Research Project (ARP) Instructions & Examples
Lorri Cerro, Ph.D., University of Maryland Global Campus, Last Revision: June 1, 2021
Instead of a final exam, you will complete a final project to demonstrate the cumulative knowledge of what
you’ve learned in this class. This applied research project (ARP) requires you to conduct an observation of human social
behavior in a public place (e.g., supermarket, church, nightclub, park, parking lot) but not in a private area (e.g.,
bathroom, bedroom). If you feel you cannot safely make observations in public places, you may observe others in your
home or use public webcams to make observations. Note that you are only to observe behavior in a public place; you
cannot interact with your subjects in any way (this includes speaking to them or having them answer written
questions/surveys). Your paper must include specific discussion of social psychology theories, principles, or concepts
discussed in this class; these may include altruism, attraction, conformity, group influence, persuasion, prejudice, age- or
gender-related psychological differences, etc. This is your chance to “think like a social psychologist” (like your class
readings demonstrate at the end of every chapter) and incorporate appropriate social psychological theories/concepts in
your documentation of an observation of social behavior. You can attempt to confirm a component of something
previous research has already found, or you can synthesize information from separate topics and attempt to observe
something totally unique – either is acceptable.
The topic for your project must be approved in the ARP1 Proposal before you begin making your observations. In
the APR2 Final Paper, you will elaborate on information from your proposal and document your actual observations.
Note that ARP2 is worth 27% of your grade for this class, so it should be a significant, formal piece of writing. If you
struggle with writing, I strongly suggest you plan ahead to have the time to submit your paper to UMGC’s Effective
Writing Center and get feedback BEFORE submitting to me for grading. Appropriate content and quality writing are
more important than length or quantity; however, I expect your proposal will be about 2-3 double-spaced pages long
and the final paper will be about 11-14 pages long in its entirety in order to address all the requirements. Your final
paper should not contain your proposal.
Note that this project requires you to (a) ask an appropriate research question, and then (b) answer the question
you asked. What makes a research question appropriate for this project is that it (a) relates to a social psychology
topic/concept/theory, (b) has support from previous research (which is laid out in your paper’s Introduction with
appropriate citations), and (c) is able to be answered through observation alone. In the final paper, you don’t have to
find the answer you thought you would find, you just need to provide the answer you found and explain why you think
you got the answer you got.
In this document, I present the instructions and examples for each component of the project. Note that the
instructions and examples for ARP2 include more detail, so you should read this entire document before submitting
ARP1. For ARP2’s instructions, I cover each component of the paper with (a) instructions for that section, (b) an
appropriate example, and (c) the checklist from that component’s grading rubric (the complete rubric is also located in
the syllabus). And at the end of this document, you’ll find a complete example final paper. These examples are meant
illustrate what is expected for the assignment; however, they should not be considered the only way to document an
observational project as there are many ways to do this and do it well. Additionally, the writing in these examples was
adapted from actual student submissions and may contain minor errors.
ARP Instructions & Examples Table of Contents
Assignment Section Page #
Both ARP1 & ARP2 APA-Style Writing Quality & General Formatting 2
ARP1 Proposal Proposal 3-5
ARP2 Final Paper
Title Page 6
Introduction & Research Question 7-8
Method: Subjects & Setting 9
Method: Procedure 10
Results & Conclusion 11-12
References 13
Appendix: Annotated Literature Review 14-15
Complete Paper Example 16, 1-14
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APA-Style Writing Quality & General Formatting
You must carefully proofread your submissions for writing quality and should submit writing to UMGC’s Effective
Writing Center (https://www.umgc.edu/current-students/learning-resources/writing-center/index.cfm) if you struggle.
GENERAL WRITING REQUIREMENTS: APA style requires clear and succinct writing. Continuity and flow of information,
especially between paragraphs, is important, so pay attention to organization and transitions between topics. Most of
the grammar and punctuation rules used by APA should be familiar to college students (e.g., proper subject-verb
agreement), but below are some rules students tend to struggle with:
1. Do not use contractions, colloquialisms, or jargon
2. If you use abbreviations, introduce/define them parenthetically on first use, then use the abbreviation (except
the following use abbreviations without definition: time [e.g., hr], Latin [e.g., i.e.], statistical [e.g., M], and
abbreviations in the dictionary [e.g., IQ] (https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/abbreviations)
3. Use first person (e.g., I) rather than third person (e.g., “the author”) or the editorial “we”; use the singular
“they” if gender is unknown or unimportant (https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar)
4. Use punctuation properly (especially commas & semicolons; see these rule refreshers
https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/where-do-i-use-commas,
https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/how-to-use-semicolons) and note that APA style uses the serial or
Oxford comma for seriation of lists
5. Don’t capitalize words unless there is a specific rule that requires their capitalization (https://apastyle.apa.org/stylegrammar-guidelines/capitalization)
6. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above, except for:
a) Numbers that immediately precede a unit of measurement (e.g., 3 in.)
b) Statistical/math functions, decimals, percentages, ratios (e.g., 3 times as many, 0.3, 3%, 1:3)
c) Time, dates, ages, scores/points on a scale, exact sums of money (e.g., 3 days, 3-year-olds, scored 3 on
a 10-point scale, $3.03)
d) Numbers in a series (e.g., Table 3, Chapter 3, Item 3, Grade 3 [but third grade])
7. Use words for: numbers zero through nine (except for rules above), any number that begins a sentence (but this
should be avoided), common fractions (e.g., one third), and universally accepted usage (e.g., Twelve Apostles)
(https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers)
Writing
Quality
Checklist
1. Proper use of numerals, capitalization, spelling, punctuation & grammar
2. No contractions or undefined abbreviations
3. Lack of redundancy between sections
GENERAL FORMATTING REQUIREMENTS (https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format; if you prefer video
demonstrations, see https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/tutorials-webinars):
1. Double-space entire paper, including References (don’t add extra blank lines, even for orphans/widows)
2. 10-12 point standard (e.g., Calibri, Times New Roman) font and the same throughout
3. Margins 1-inch flush left (a.k.a. ragged right)
4. Pages numbered in upper right corner of page
5. Paragraphs indented (about 0.5 inch)
6. ARP2 Only: Start these sections on a new page: Introduction (title), References, Annotated Literature Review
7. ARP2 Only: Use the same level heading for topics of equal importance; your final paper should use:
a) Level 1 (centered, bold, title-case capitalization, text below the heading begins on the next line as an
indented paragraph) for these sections: Introduction (but use the title for your paper), Method, Results,
Conclusions (or Results & Conclusions), References, and Annotated Literature Review
b) Level 2 (flush left, bold, title-case capitalization, same subsequent text rule as Level 1) is used for Subjects,
Setting (or Subjects & Setting), Procedure, and the abstract labels and contribution labels in the Annotated
Literature Review
This is NOT required, but if tables or figures are included, label them as demonstrated in the complete example paper.
Formatting
Checklist
1. Proper formatting (font, spacing, margins, paragraphs indentation, page numbering)
2. Proper section headings in proper order
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ARP1 Proposal
1. DIRECTIONS: Because your completed proposal will be a brief document (2-3 pages long), the instructions and a single
example are given here holistically rather than broken down by section as I did for ARP2; however, you should read the
detailed instructions from each section of ARP2 to understand of what information to include.
2. After your proposal is approved, you will develop that information into your final paper. You must submit the proposal
first to make sure you are on the right track and have some initial support for your research question. If you intend to
investigate a topic that comes towards the end of the class, you should read ahead in your in-class readings. Note that
Proposed Subjects, Setting, and Procedure should be written in future tense because these things will not have yet
occurred. The rules for organization, writing quality, and general formatting noted for the final paper are also expected
to be followed for the proposal, except for section labels (please use the numbered labels as demonstrated below for
the proposal).
3.
4. 1. Proposed Topic: Identify the general social psychology principle you will be looking for in your observation, and
provide support for your research question with information (and a citation) from the abstract in your Sample
Annotated Literature Review (and any other citations you desire).
5.
6. 2. Proposed Research Question: Make sure your research question is (a) supported by the social psychology topic
you’ve identified, (b) capable of being answered through observation alone, and (c) worded as a question.
3. Proposed Subjects: Describe your proposed subjects (e.g., age ranges, gender, race), including how many people
you intend to observe. If you intend to exclude any types of people from your observation, explain your rationale for
exclusion.
4. Proposed Setting: Describe the specific setting where you intend to conduct your observation, including some
description of the general geographic area (e.g., rural, urban, etc.).
5. Proposed Procedure: Describe how you plan to conduct your observations and what behaviors you intend to
observe with enough detail that it is clear you will be able to answer your proposed research question.
6. References: APA-style references for every citation used in the proposal.
7. Sample Annotated Literature Review: Copy one abstract on an appropriate topic from an academic journal article
and include an appropriate explanation for how it contributes to your study. The abstract must be properly labeled
with an APA-style citation.
7. WARNING: YOU CANNOT COPY ANY PORTION OF THE PROPOSAL EXAMPLE. You could elaborate on a similar topic, but
if you want to look at gender-related differences in mask wearing, you MUST introduce some other variable and
CANNOT use any of the references used in this example other than Jhangiani and Tarry (2014). Also, don’t feel the need
to observe as many subjects as indicated in this example – especially if your topic requires more detailed observation.
EXAMPLE:
1. Proposed Topic:
Previous research has found few gender-related differences in conformity (Jhangiani, & Tarry, 2014); however,
recent research suggests that men are less likely to comply with current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(2020) recommendation to wear face coverings in public (Haischer et al., 2020). Given my state’s requirement to wear
masks in public (Maryland Department of Health, 2020), failure to do so represents deviation in compliance.
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2. Proposed Research Question:
Are men less likely than women to conform to mask-wearing requirements in public?
3. Proposed Subjects:
My observations will focus on adult shoppers who appear to be between the ages of 30 and 60 years of age. I will
not include people who work at the store, because they are required by their employer to wear masks, and will also
exclude people that appear younger than 30 or older than 60, because I feel like their behavior could differ for reasons
other than gender. I will include people of all racial/ethnic groups, although I am not interested in differences between
these groups. I plan to observe at least 100 people and hope to observe approximately equal numbers of men and
women.
4. Proposed Setting:
I will conduct my observation during evening and weekend hours in a grocery store located in Columbia, MD. This
is a busy, suburban setting which will provide access to a diverse number of subjects. At the time of my observation,
there is a state-wide mandate requiring people to wear masks in public (Maryland Department of Health, 2020).
5. Proposed Procedure:
I will conduct my observations while pretending to shop to prevent my subjects from suspecting they are being
observed. For shoppers who meet my intended age restriction, I will make note of their gender and if the person is
wearing a proper mask properly; wearing an improper mask (e.g., masks with exhalation valve, plastic face shield only)
or wearing a proper mask improperly; or not wearing any mask. Masks will be considered proper if they are made of
cloth or disposable material (e.g., N95 filters, surgical masks), and will be considered worn properly if the mask covers
both the mouth and nose during the duration of my observation.
6. References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, August 7). Considerations for wearing masks: Help slow the spread
of COVID-19. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/cloth-face-cover-guidance.html
Haischer, M. H., Beilfuss, R., Hart, M. R., Opielinski, L. Wrucke, D., Zirgaitis, G., Uhrich, T. D., Hunter, S. K. (2020).
Who is wearing a mask? Gender-, age-, and location-related differences during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS
ONE, 15(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240785
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Jhangiani, R. & Tarry, H. (2014). Principles of social psychology (1st international ed.). BCcampus.

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Maryland Department of Health. (2020, October 15). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) frequently asked
questions. https://phpa.health.maryland.gov/Documents/coronavirus_FAQ.pdf
7. Sample Annotated Literature Review
Abstract 1 (Haischer et al., 2020)
“Masks are an effective tool in combatting the spread of COVID-19, but some people still resist wearing them and
mask-wearing behavior has not been experimentally studied in the United States. To understand the demographics of
mask wearers and resistors, and the impact of mandates on mask-wearing behavior, we observed shoppers (n = 9935)
entering retail stores during periods of June, July, and August 2020. Approximately 41% of the June sample wore a
mask. At that time, the odds of an individual wearing a mask increased significantly with age and was also 1.5x greater
for females than males. Additionally, the odds of observing a mask on an urban or suburban shopper were ~4x that for
rural areas. Mask mandates enacted in late July and August increased mask-wearing compliance to over 90% in all
groups, but a small percentage of resistors remained. Thus, gender, age, and location factor into whether shoppers in the
United States wear a mask or face covering voluntarily. Additionally, mask mandates are necessary to increase mask
wearing among the public to a level required to mitigate the spread of COVID-19.”
Contribution
This study investigated demographic characteristics of people who wore and did not wear masks based on direct
observation during the summer of 2020 and found females were 1.5 times more likely to wear a mask as compared to
males. This finding helped me devise my research question, and the methodology used in this study informed my
decisions for how to make my observations.
Proposal
Checklist See the complete ARP1 Grading Rubric located in the syllabus for grading criteria.
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ARP2 Title Page
DIRECTIONS: Give your project an appropriate title (you can be slightly creative, but make sure you include the major
variables involved in your observational study). Below the title, include your name as the author, your affiliation
(department & full school name, not abbreviation), our course number & name, your instructor’s name & title, and the
due date (written as Month DD, YYYY).
FORMATTING NOTES: The title page is the first page of your paper and should be included in page numbering. Do not
use fancy colors or fonts. Bold and capitalize all major words in the title. The title should be separated from the author
information by one extra blank double-spaced line.
EXAMPLE:
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Deviant Behavior as a Persuasive Technique
Pat Smith
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland Global Campus
PSYC 321: Social Psychology
Dr. Lorri Cerro
August 2, 2020
Title Page
Checklist
1. Contains required information (appropriate title, author, affiliation, course, instructor, due date)
2. Does not contain extraneous information
3. Proper formatting (3-4 lines from top, centered, title bolded & capitalized title case, page numbered, double
spaced with one extra line separating the title)
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ARP2 Introduction & Research Question
DIRECTIONS: This section will “introduce” your reader to the general social psychology topic you will be observing and
summarize what you’ve learned from the abstracts in your annotated literature review (most, if not all, of the abstracts
included in your annotated literature review should be cited in the Introduction). The introduction must build the
case for your research question. When you outline your introduction, think of an upside-down triangle or funnel shape;
begin with the most general information, then progress to information that is most related to your research question.
Organize your introduction as follows:
1. Start by introducing your chosen social psychology topic in general (this could be a few sentences or a paragraph
long) and make sure you include appropriate citations from your classroom text and/or other sources. Note: You
should read ahead in your in-class readings if you intend to investigate a topic that comes towards the end of the
class so you can include appropriate information from the classroom text and to get ideas for terms to search for or
authors to include for your literature review
2. Next comes the literature review; this is where you will summarize what you’ve learned from the abstracts (with
citations) included in your Annotated Literature Review. If your research question addresses multiple topics, you
must provide support for all of them, but this does not have to happen within the same citation. You can combine
ideas from separate research evidence to support your research question (this is, in fact, how much research is
done in the real world).
3. The final portion of your introduction should summarize and synthesize what you’ve learned from your literature
review which should naturally lead to your research question.
4. Your Introduction must end with a specific research question (or small set of related questions) that you are trying
to answer for this project, or you can include questions as a separately labeled section immediately after the
Introduction. Make sure (a) you clearly state the question(s) you are trying to answer, (b) your question is
supported by information you included in your Introduction, and (c) your question can be answered through
observation alone. Your question(s) must be detailed and specific. For example: When individuals are in groups, are
they more likely to conform? Do men engage in distinguishable behaviors before asking a woman to dance in a bar
setting? Does the behavior of older people influence the behavior of younger people in a dangerous setting? Note
that one good question is better than multiple weak questions, and too many weakly related questions will make
your paper difficult to write.
FORMATTING NOTES: This section starts with your paper’s title as a Level 1 heading. It should be about 1-2 doublespaced pages long and must include citations from articles in your Annotated Literature Review for support. Note that
this section should be written in past or present perfect tense. Also see the “APA Style for Citations and References Job
Aid” and “How APA-Style Citations and References Can Help You Prevent Plagiarism” section at the end of the syllabus.
EXAMPLE:
Deviant Behavior as a Persuasive Technique
Persuasion techniques are often used when attempting to get people to donate to charities (Jhangiani, & Tarry,
2014). Getting people to donate money when it is requested can also be thought of as way of getting people to
conform to your demands (Jhangiani, & Tarry, 2014). Persuading others to conform their behavior by donating money
involves techniques that are not used only by formal charities. According to Lankenau (1999), some panhandlers
capture attention by using dramatic techniques to increase compliance.
Pedestrians serve as an audience and respond to panhandling by selecting form a menu of responses. One
common response amongst the everyday commuters is the nonperson treatment or passing by a panhandler as if they
do not exist. This sort of behavior is often displayed by those who believe that people get what they deserve and
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deserve what they get (Begue et al., 2008). In other words, these people are unlikely to participate in altruistic
behavior toward beggars and panhandlers.
Persuasive techniques, such as the Pique technique, are often used by beggars and panhandlers to increase
compliance from passersby in situations where little attention might be paid otherwise (Burder et al., 2007). This
technique is practiced by presenting individuals with an unexpected request in an attempt to catch the attention of the
intended audience. For instance, in the study by Burder, et al., 313 passersby were either asked by beggars for a
common amount of change or for 37 cents. Those asked for the uncommon amount of 37 cents were more likely to
comply with the request for money due to their heuristic process being disrupted.
Deviant behavior displayed by beggars and panhandlers may also discourage passersby from complying with
their requests. In a study done by Abbate and Ruggieri (2008), a fake beggar was instructed to either approach
passersby and invade their personal space or allow passersby to make the decision to approach them. For the purpose
of the above-mentioned study, personal space was defined as a moveable, invisible barrier surrounding individuals.
When the beggar acted in a deviant way by invading the personal space of passersby, this effectively heightened
discomfort and negative feelings of the passersby who were approached, which resulted in decreased compliance
amongst those passersby.
Because the behavior of those asking for money could have positive or negative influence on the likelihood
of their requests being met, the current study will investigate how their behavior influences the behavior of those
being targeted for donations. Specifically, will engaging in deviant behavior positively or negatively influence the
likelihood of compliance by passersby when donations are requested? And what techniques used by street beggars are
most persuasive in increasing compliance with their monetary donation requests?
Introduction
Checklist
1. Starts with appropriate social psychological concepts
2. Includes support from abstracts in annotated literature review (appendix)
3. Information is related to observational topic
4. Supports research question(s)
5. Does not contain extraneous information
6. Excellent organization with appropriate transitions between topics
7. All information from external sources cited with perfect APA style
Research
Question
Checklist
1. Supported by introduction
2. Able to answer with observational procedure
3. Appropriate number/scope
4. Worded as a question
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ARP2 Method: Subjects & Setting
DIRECTIONS FOR SUBJECTS: Describe the general group(s) of subjects you have observed, including the exact
number, estimated ages or age groups, gender(s), racial/ethnic groups represented, and any other observable
information that makes these people special. If you are making comparisons between groups (e.g., genders), you
should also include the number observed in each subgroup (e.g., males & females). If you excluded anyone from
observation, explain your rationale.
DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING: Describe the setting in which your observation occurred (e.g., Where did you make your
observation? Were you outside or inside? What was special about this setting? If this setting was required for you
answer your research question, explain why.) Also name and describe the general geographic area for your setting
(e.g., Was it in a diverse urban, busy suburban, or quite rural setting? What are the racial, ethnic, and/or
socioeconomic characteristics of the area [with citations to support the characteristics you report]?). Include
sufficient detail so that it is clear how the setting might have affected your observations.
FORMATTING NOTES: These sections are included under the Level 1 heading for Method and use Level 2
subheadings. Each section may be only a few sentences long (in which case, you may combine as “Subjects and
Setting”), or include more detail (e.g., if the subject groups or setting is very important to your observation). Note
that these sections should be written in past tense as you’re writing about things that have already happened.
EXAMPLE:
Method
Subjects
I limited my observations to groups of females who appeared to be 20 to 70 years of age. While I did not record race or
ethnicity, it is important to note that my subjects were predominantly White. In order for a group to qualify for observation, it
had to include at least three people, but there was no upper limit for group size. I observed a total of 23 groups and 85 people.
Setting
This observation was conducted at the only shopping mall in Cheyenne, Wyoming, a primarily urban area with
approximately 64,000 residents (http://www.city-data.com/city/Cheyenne-Wyoming.html). The racial makeup of this area is
primarily White (77%) while the gender distribution approximately equal. The median household income in Cheyenne of
$59,877 per year is similar to the average income for the state of Wyoming. Francis E. Warren Air Force Base is located at the
edge of town, and the city also has a community college. All walks of life may be found at the shopping mall at any given time
which made it a good spot to catch a population sample of Cheyenne, and the public setting facilitated my ability to observe
behaviors unobtrusively. In order to observe behavior of people as they joined lines, I assumed a position in the eatery area of
the mall which provided a good vantage point of a variety of store fronts where lines routinely formed.
Subjects
Checklist
1. Appropriate information about subjects given research topic (e.g., age, gender, race)
2. Good details included
3. Includes number of subjects actually observed
4. Does not contain extraneous information
5. Excellent organization with appropriate transitions between topics
Setting
Checklist
1. Appropriate setting description given research topic, including general geographic area
2. Good details included
3. Includes appropriate citations (if necessary)
4. Does not contain extraneous information
5. Excellent organization with appropriate transitions between topics
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ARP2 Method: Procedure
DIRECTIONS: In this section, explain how you engaged in your observation and the type of behaviors you were
looking for. Include information that is relevant to answering your research question but not extraneous details.
Someone should be able to replicate your procedure based on the information you provide here. For example: If
you had multiple observational sessions, why did you do this and what made them different? What specific types of
behavior did you expect to observe in order to answer your research question? Did you categorize or code your
observations in any way? How did you prevent your observations from being noticed?
FORMATTING NOTES: This section may range from a paragraph to about 1 page, depending on the topics discussed
for your specific observation. Note that this section should be written in past tense as you’re writing about things
that have already happened.
EXAMPLE:
Procedure
My observations took place in two different settings over two days in order to capture different pre-existing trash
situations. On the first day, I visited Anjeong-ri and observed the bazaar in town with many food vendors selling
chicken on a stick. Despite there being a market set up here where people could buy food and other items, there was
only one trash can in my viewing area. In addition, there was already plenty of trash on the ground, so many people
comfortably added their trash to the bulk of it. On the second day, I observed the business district in Myeong-Dong.
There were plenty of places to eat and buy water; however, this place was very clean with newer recycling bins and
garbage cans sat strategically in convenient parts throughout the strip. In each location, I found a place to sit and watch
unobtrusively for approximately 3 hours while I recorded whether each person who disposed of trash properly or
littered on the ground was alone or with a group.
Procedure
Checklist
1. Meaningful description and level of detail explaining how observations were made
2. Description of appropriate behaviors to be observed
3. Observations address research question(s)
3. Does not contain extraneous information
4. Excellent organization with appropriate transitions between topics
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ARP2 Results & Conclusions
DIRECTIONS: In this section, you will summarize the results of your observations and relate what you observed back
to information reported in your Introduction section (with appropriate citations). For results, you should report
some actual data (summary values, averages, and percentages are good to report, but raw data should NOT be
included). Some observation topics will lend themselves more or less to including data (some students have actually
included graphs or charts to illustrate what they observed; this is not required but is encouraged where appropriate,
especially if you think you might ask me for a reference for graduate school in the future). After reporting your
results, explain what conclusion(s) you have drawn based on the results you obtained. You must clearly state the
answer(s) to your research question(s) and describe how appropriate social psychology theories, principles, or
concepts help explain the results you have reported (with citations). You can also speculate on why people behaved
as you observed, suggest next steps to take in this research area, and/or explain what you wish you had done
differently.
FORMATTING NOTES: This section starts with a Level 1 heading and will usually run about 1 page long. You may
choose to report these sections separately or combined. Also see the “APA Style for Citations and References Job
Aid” and “How APA-Style Citations and References Can Help You Prevent Plagiarism” at the end of the syllabus. Note
that the Results section should be written in past tense as you’re writing about things that have already happened,
and the Conclusions section should be in present tense if you’re discussing limitations or suggesting future research.
EXAMPLE:
Results & Conclusions
During my observations, I determined that more people (11/14 or 79%) littered in Anjeong-ri where there was a
lack of trash receptacles than in Myeong-dong where trash receptacles were prevalent (2/19 or 11%). I believe the
reason for this is because Anejeong-ri is not a clean place in comparison to Myeong-Dong, which is a clean and
attractive area. This difference may be the result of social norms and cues. Many of our actions will be due to
following what we have seen in the past (Jhangiani, & Tarry, 2014), so if we are in an environment that is already
littered, we are much more likely to litter, as opposed to an environment where littering is not the norm. Another
reason for this may be due to what was in place to promote pro-social behavior. While Anjeong-ri had few trash bins,
Myeong-Dong had a plethora of garbage bins within the strip of their business district and not only did they have
garbage bins, they also had recycling bins, which helped to promote the pro-social behavior of recycling and proper
disposal of waste, making such behavior a norm for the majority. I believe littering was a violation of social norms in
Myeong-Dong, while in Anjeong-ri it was not because so many people had littered there already based on the trash
already on the ground.
From what I observed, it did not matter if people were alone or with other people when they littered. It was
close to an even split in both locations; 7/13 or 54% littered alone and 6/13 or 46% littered with company. This
surprised me because I expected there could be some social pressure from being with others while littering (Reich &
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Roberson, 1979). At least in my observation, what mattered was the norm for that particular setting. Additionally, I
noticed that young males seemed to litter most, especially when in groups. One explanation for this is that that men
litter more than women because they feel less responsible for environment impacts and consider recycling to be
feminine (Brough et al., 2016). But since gender differences was not something I set out to study, this could be an
interesting topic for a later study.
Results &
Conclusion
Checklist
1. Meaningful description of behaviors observed
2. Results reported address research question(s)
3. Results linked back to information from Introduction with appropriate support
4. Conclusions properly related to results
5. Personal opinion included about appropriate topics
6. Does not contain extraneous information
7. Excellent organization with appropriate transitions between topics
8. All information from external sources cited with perfect APA style
13
ARP2 References
DIRECTIONS: In this section, list the references you cited in your paper using proper APA style. Note that you must
have references for all the abstracts included in your Annotated Literature Review, as well as any other citations you
chose to include in your paper. There should be perfect 1:1 correspondence between information cited in your
paper and references in your list. I will literally check this when grading your paper, so you should, too. See
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations and https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammarguidelines/references for more details.
FORMATTING NOTES: This section starts with a Level 1 heading, begins on a new page, and will usually run about 1
page long. References should be double-spaced, listed in alphabetical order, and use hanging indentation. Also see
the “APA Style for Citations and References Job Aid”.
EXAMPLE:
References
American Psychological Association. (2016, January 4). Self-esteem gender gap more pronounced in western
countries. http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/01/self-esteem-gender.aspx.
Atherton, M. (2015). Measuring confidence levels of male and female students in open access enabling courses. Issues
in Educational Research, 25(2), 81-98. http://www.iier.org.au/iier25/atherton.pdf
Baumeister, R., Campbell, J., Krueger, J., & Vohs, K. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance,
interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1-
44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431
Furnham, A., Badmin, N., & Sneade, I. (2002). Body image dissatisfaction: Gender differences in eating attitudes,
self-esteem, and reasons for exercise. The Journal of Psychology, 136(6), 581-596.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604820
Jhangiani, R. & Tarry, H. (2014). Principles of social psychology (1st international ed.). BCcampus.

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Kearney-Cooke, A. (1999). Gender differences and self-esteem. The Journal of Gender-Specific Medicine, 2(3), 46-
52. http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/11252852.
Kling, K., Hyde, J., Showers, C., & Buswell, B., (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis
[Abstract]. Psychological Bulletin, 125(4), 470-500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.470
References
Checklist
1. Perfect correspondence between citations & references
2. Perfect APA style in references
14
ARP2 Appendix: Annotated Literature Review
ABSTRACT DEFINITION: An abstract is one of the first elements included in academic journal articles; it
summarizes the entire article. In most cases, the articles you will cite in your paper will be research based (i.e.,
the authors actually conducted an experiment), but you may also choose articles that are more theoretical in
nature as long as they have an abstract. Note that you can also cite information from books and websites in your
paper, but they don’t contain abstracts, so they cannot be used in the Annotated Literature Review section. If
don’t understand what an “abstract” is, follow this link to see the abstract used in the example below:
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0010047
DIRECTIONS: Locate 5 appropriate abstracts from academic journal articles relating to your observation. Read
that number again – you need 5 appropriate abstracts (every semester, people lose easy points by not including
this information; if you don’t understand this requirement, discuss it with me to make sure you do understand it).
Copy and paste these abstracts in this appendix; below each abstract, explain how this article helped support your
introduction, form your research question, set up your observational methodology, or relate to your conclusions
(this explanation should be labeled “Contribution”).
Make sure you use and cite information from each of these abstracts in your final paper; most of these citations
should come in the Introduction and Conclusion sections, but some can occur in other sections. Including the
“Contribution” in this section helps me understand why you chose this study, but you still need to weave that
information into your actual paper (with proper citations).
FORMATTING NOTES: This section starts with a Level 1 heading, begins on a new page, and will usually run about
4-5 pages long. Number each abstract and label with an APA-style in-text citation (i.e., the author’s last name and
publication year) as a Level 2 subheading. Below the abstract, label your explanation of how it contributes to your
project with the Level 2 subheading “Contribution”.
EXAMPLE:
Appendix: Annotated Literature Review
Abstract 1 (Moussaid et al., 2010)
“Human crowd motion is mainly driven by self-organized processes based on local interactions among
pedestrians. While most studies of crowd behaviour consider only interactions among isolated individuals, it turns
out that up to 70% of people in a crowd are actually moving in groups, such as friends, couples, or families walking
together. These groups constitute medium-scale aggregated structures and their impact on crowd dynamics is still
largely unknown. In this work, we analyze the motion of approximately 1500 pedestrian groups under natural
condition, and show that social interactions among group members generate typical group walking patterns that
influence crowd dynamics. At low density, group members tend to walk side by side, forming a line perpendicular
to the walking direction. As the density increases, however, the linear walking formation is bent forward, turning it
into a V-like pattern. These spatial patterns can be well described by a model based on social communication
between group members. We show that the V-like walking pattern facilitates social interactions within the group,
but reduces the flow because of its “non-aerodynamic” shape. Therefore, when crowd density increases, the group
15
organization results from a trade-off between walking faster and facilitating social exchange. These insights
demonstrate that crowd dynamics is not only determined by physical constraints induced by other pedestrians and
the environment, but also significantly by communicative, social interactions among individuals.”
Contribution
The authors of this study explored specific social interactions that tend to be made by pedestrians. This
information assisted my design of a way to observe groups unobtrusively. Furthermore, they engaged in assessment
of the dynamic between all of the groups and if these social interactions were impacted by any specific triggers.
The research questions they formulated regarding their mall observation helped me identify what types of
interactions are likely to be seen on a daily basis.
Literature
Review
Checklist
1. 5 appropriate (in source & topic) abstracts
2. 5 appropriate explanations for how information contributed to your study
3. Abstracts properly labeled
16
ARP2 Complete Paper Example
I’ve always been reluctant to share a complete final paper. My primary concern is that no single example can
demonstrate “the best way” to document an observational study. Some topics will require more or less detail in
various sections, and you need to document appropriately for your given topic. For example, your paper may
need more or less detail included in the Method and Results sections than is demonstrated here. Some people
choose to report Subjects and Setting and/or Results and Conclusions as combined sections, which is fine. And
your topic may involve observation of fewer subjects than was done for this example paper, which is also fine.
I’m also very concerned about plagiarism – even the unintentional kind. Once you’ve read what I consider to be a
good paper, it may be difficult for you to imagine other ways to document your own observation. But students
continue to miss some basic requirements that I cover in these instructions (e.g., organizing the introduction
appropriately [starting with the general social psychology concept and ending with your specific research
question], use of citations [especially in the Introduction and Conclusion sections], 1:1 correspondence between
text citations and reference list, including 5 abstracts in the Annotated Literature Review), so I’ve decided to
include a complete paper example with the hope that seeing it will help everyone better understand what’s
required.
The example paper that follows was an interesting observational idea that was particularly well documented.
Again, your observational topic and documentation do not need to follow this example. And note that NO ONE IS
ALLOWED TO COPY THIS IDEA FOR THEIR OBSERVATIONAL TOPIC (similar to the restriction on the proposal
example that was shared earlier in this document).
In this example paper, the student’s observational data lent itself to including a table and a figure – this is NOT
REQUIRED for your final paper, but I encourage you to do so if your data lend itself to such representation.
Similarly, if you have already completed PSYC 300 and are comfortable conducting some statistical analysis of
your data, you can include that as well, but this is NOT REQUIRED. Students who include appropriate statistical
analyses and tabular or graphic representations of their data may receive extra credit – if they are well done. If
you have aspirations for pursuing a graduate education in psychology and may ask me for a recommendation
letter sometime in the future, these would also be good to include as it gives me more to write about
Also note that the example paper has its pages numbered appropriately and the author’s name has been
changed.
1
Deindividuation on Halloween Night
Taylor Jones
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland Global Campus
PSYC 321: Social Psychology
Dr. Lorri Cerro
December 1, 2020
2
Deindividuation on Halloween Night
Previous research has noted several factors which contribute to altered behavior while in a group.
Similar to groupthink and conformity, deindividuation is a concept in social psychology referring to a loss
of self-awareness when in a group (Jhangiani & Tarry, 2014). Deindividuation is defined as a
phenomenon in which people engage in seemingly impulsive, deviant, and sometimes violent acts in
situations in which they believe they cannot be personally identified (Crash Course, 2014).
Deindividuation may cause someone to behave differently than they normally would (Jhangiani & Tarry,
2014). Early research indicates that this has been known to cause impulsive, aggressive or anti-social
behaviors (Diener, et al., 1976). Put simply, people are more likely to act out in groups than otherwise.
Early studies found certain factors, such as anonymity and a lowered sense of responsibility, can
promote deindividuation. Mathes and Guest (1976) found participants were more willing to engage in
anti-social behavior when the person is both disguised and in a large group. This indicates that anti-social
behaviors are more likely to occur when anonymity is high, risk of being identified is low, and when
subjects are in larger groups (Crash Course, 2014). Because of this, classic deindividuation research
consistently manipulated anonymity, self-awareness, and group size (Postmes & Spears, 1998). Later
research has also shown how deindividuation may cause people to act in accordance with a group’s norms
(Vilanova, et al., 2017).
Another study suggests that anonymous individuals are much more likely to engage in anti-social
behavior than people who are in small, identifiable groups with friends and associates (Neal, 1993).
Again, this points to the importance of anonymity in predicting anti-social behaviors. When people can be
easily identified, accountability, responsibility, and awareness decrease one’s inclination to engage in
socially deviant behaviors, such as stealing (Neal, 1993).
On the contrary, more recent research indicates that deindividuation is not always a feasible
explanation for anti-social behavior. Furthermore, it suggests that factors such as anonymity, assignment
3
of responsibility, and self-awareness do not affect anti-social behavior as much as some earlier research
studies may indicate (Postmes & Spears, 1998). One meta-analysis suggests that deviant behavior is more
of a case-by-case decision on the part of the individual, and that there is little research to support a
“deindividuated state” at all (Postmes & Spears, 1998). These findings contradict deindividuation theory
and instead supports social identity models for anti-social behavior.
Due to the current pandemic, there is an upcoming opportunity to investigate how deindividuation
theory may affect behavior during Halloween traditions. Maryland state (The Office of Governor, n.d.)
and various local governments (e.g., City of Laurel, 2020) have issued limits for trick-or treating to
require that candy should only be dispensed through socially distanced means. For example, candy bowls
are to be placed in driveways and children should gather in smaller groups than normal. These new
restrictions may have interesting implications for anti-social behavior (such as stealing candy) on
Halloween night. What might one expect?
Given previously conflicting evidence, one may expect higher rates of stealing candy if children
are alone and/or disguised (anonymity) (Diener et al., 1976), see more or less stealing depending on what
the other kids in the group do (group norm) (Vilanova et al., 2017), less stealing if the child is with
friends (accountability) (Neal, 1993), or little correlation and note that the decision to steal candy is more
or less an individual, case-by-case decision (Postmes & Spears, 1998). Many factors could affect a
person’s propensity to deviate from a rule and steal extra candy: lack of supervision, age of the child,
gender, socio-economic status, history of anti-social behavior, full disguise and more. The current
research study will examine a unique situation where children may choose to engage in a relatively
anonymous, low risk anti-social behavior (stealing candy from an unattended table) to answer the
question: Are unsupervised groups of two or more children more likely to deviate from a rule than
unsupervised individual children?
Method
4
Subjects
I limited my observation to include children who appeared to be between the ages of 7-17.
Children who appeared to be younger than 7 were excluded, as they were more likely to be supervised by
an adult and less likely to be able to read the required note which accompanied the target candy. Children
whose parents approached the candy display were also excluded, as these children were considered less
likely to break the rule in front of a supervising adult. While children of all racial and ethnic groups
qualified for observation, I did not record racial or ethnic information when it could be determined. I
observed 104 children; 24 as individuals and 80 in groups of two to four people with a similar overall
gender distribution (50 girls and 54 boys).
Setting
I conducted my observation outside my home in Laurel, MD. This is a busy, suburban setting,
with a diverse population and high trick-or treating traffic which provided access to a large sample size
and a diverse number of subjects. The area is predominantly African American. Prince George’s County,
Maryland is one of the wealthiest predominantly African American counties in the nation, but it is also an
area highly affected by COVID-19 (Marbella & Harris, 2020). At the time of my observation, a statewide mandate prohibiting large group gatherings was in effect (The Office of the Governor, n.d.). State
mandates also required social distancing and for candy to be distributed in safe and socially distanced
ways (City of Laurel Maryland, 2020).
Procedure
During the evening of October 31, 2020, between the hours of 6:00 pm and 10:00 pm ET, I
placed a large bowl full of Halloween candy on a table at the end of my driveway. The driveway was well
lit and decorated to signal that I was (safely) giving out candy. I placed a note next to the candy bowl, in
large, typed font, which read: “Please take only one.” To avoid influence and increase anonymity, no one
from my household sat outside or interacted with trick-or-treaters in any way. I observed and recorded the
5
results through discreet security cameras facing my driveway. Participants who met the age and
supervision requirements were recorded as having taken one or more than one piece of candy. I also made
note of group size. I routinely delete video footage of my premises and did the same for this recoding
upon the completion of my analysis.
Results
Of the 104 subjects observed, 24 met the age criteria and approached the candy table alone. For
these individuals, eight of 24 (33%) approached the table, read the sign, and adhered to the rule by taking
exactly one piece of candy, while 16 of 24 (67%) approached the table, read the sign, and deviated from
the rule by taking more than one piece of candy. While two of these individuals took multiple handfuls of
candy, the rest took between two pieces and a single handful. The remaining 80 subjects who met criteria
and arrived in eight groups of four subjects, 10 groups of three subjects, and nine groups of two subjects
with the results displayed in Table 1.
Table 1
Rule Adherence as Function of Group Size
Rule Adherence
Group Size
1 2 3 4
Yes (1 piece) 33% (8/24) 56% (10/18) 57% (17/30) 63% (20/32)
No (> 1 piece) 67% (16/24) 44% (8/18) 43% (13/30) 37% (12/32)
To summarize the data for all participants in groups, 47 of 80 participants (59%) adhered to the
rule and took exactly one piece of candy, while 33 of 80 participants (41%) ignored the sign and deviated
from the rule by taking more than one piece. See Figure 1 for a comparison of individuals to overall
groups.
6
Figure 1
Overall Rule Adherence for Individuals vs. Groups
Conclusions
In this particular study, the results showed that a higher percentage of individuals did not follow
the rule and took extra candy than those who approached the table in groups. In regard to the research
question, it would seem that groups of two or more children are less likely to deviate from the rule
compared to individual participants. Although actual statistical analyses were not performed on this data
to determine if this result is statistically significant, results seem to indicate that both anonymity and
group norms were at play here.
Just as the literature review yielded mixed findings, so did the present study. Neal (1993)
theorized that being in small groups with friends would increase accountability and therefore decrease
anti-social behaviors. This may account for the slightly lower rates of stealing in groups of two to three
people. Mathes and Guest (1976) theorized that large groups and disguises would increase deviant
behavior, which may account for the slight increase in stealing in groups of four people. And finally, the
theory of deindividuation and anonymity would explain why more individuals (by percentage) stole
candy than those in groups (Diener et al., 1976).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Individuals Groups
1 Piece > 1 Piece
7
Previous experiments have assigned children to groups according to anonymity or lack thereof,
group size and/or assigning responsibility to a single child in the group (Diener et al., 1976). For the
current study, there was no assignment of responsibility because doing so would have required
interaction. Because there could be no interaction, each child already had some level of perceived
anonymity (because they were either alone, in costume, or otherwise unidentifiable) except when
accompanied closely by a parent (which is why children with parents were excluded). In this situation, all
recorded children had the anonymity required to believe that they could get away with stealing more
candy, if they chose to do so. The naturalistic observation that the current study represented, although
limited due to unequal group sizes, does suggest a higher level of validity than experimental situations
that manipulate the setting.
Many factors could have influenced behavior here. It is possible that the sample size or setting
could have impacted the results. It is also possible that COVID-19 mandates impacted supervision (or
lack thereof), or impulsive behavior (or lack thereof). Many variables could affect a person’s propensity
to steal extra candy: age of the child, gender, socio-economic status, history of anti-social behavior, and
full disguise are all possible confounding variables. But given all of this, the results of this study still
support different theories explaining anti-social group behavior.
This study seemed to indicate that people who can get away with it are more likely to steal, unless
they are with friends where the group norm is not to steal or where there is more accountability. This
resonates with my personal experience; people seem to have a tendency to do the right thing if they think
people are watching but not as often when no one is looking. It would have been interesting if it were
possible to debrief participants after the fact to investigate personal and interpersonal characteristics.
Future studies could eliminate some of these confounding variables by limiting observations to
fewer characteristics with more participants. Attempts to observe more equal sample sizes for the various
groups while also considering larger group sizes would also be desirable. While I did note gender and
8
ethnic information, I did not evaluate their differences, although I found nothing in my literature review
that suggested these variables would lead to differences. I would definitely be interested in determining
whether there is a difference in people in full costume (face covered) or if they are still identifiable. I also
would have liked to attend more closely to potential age-related differences, especially young children
compared to teenagers. And determining whether children are more likely to steal if dressed in an “evil”
costume would be an interesting avenue for future research.
9
References
City of Laurel Maryland. (2020, October 8). Halloween 2020. https://www.cityoflaurel.org/comm/pressreleases/14475-halloween-2020
Crash Course. (2014, November 11). Social influence: Crash course psychology
#38 [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGxGDdQnC1Y
Diener, E., Fraser, S. C., Beaman, A. L., & Kelem, R. T. (1976). Effects of deindividuation variables on
stealing among Halloween trick-or-treaters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33(2),
178–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.33.2.178
Jhangiani, R. & Tarry, H. (2014). Principles of social psychology (1st international ed.). BCcampus.

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Marbella, J., & Harris, N. (2020, July 9). Maryland’s Prince George’s County is among nation’s
wealthiest Black communities, but it leads state in coronavirus cases. Baltimore Sun.
https://www.tribpub.com/gdpr/baltimoresun.com/
Mathes, E. W., & Guest, T. A. (1976). Anonymity and group antisocial behavior. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 100(2), 257–262. https://doiorg.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1080/00224545
Neal, D. M. (1993). A further examination of anonymity, contagion, and deindividuation in crowd and
collective behavior. Sociological Focus, 26(2), 93–107.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1993.10571000
The Office of the Governor Larry Hogan (n.d.). Governor Hogan announces expanded statewide mask
order, out-of-state travel advisory. Maryland.gov.
https://governor.maryland.gov/2020/07/29/governor-hogan-announces-expanded-statewide-maskorder-out-of-state-travel-advisory/
10
Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (1998). Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123(3), 238–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.238
Vilanova, F., Beria, M., Costa, A., & Koller, H. (2017). Deindividuation: From Le Bon to the social
identity model of deindividuation effects. Cogent Psychology, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2017.1308104
11
Appendix: Annotated Literature Review
Abstract 1 (Diener et al., 1976)
“Conducted a naturalistic study on Halloween to assess the effects of 3 deindividuation variables
(anonymity vs nonanonymity, alone vs group, and groups with or without a child who was made
responsible for the group’s actions) on stealing by children. Concealed raters unobtrusively observed
approximately 1,300 trick-or-treating children who were assigned to various conditions and given an
opportunity to steal candy and money. Significantly more stealing was observed under conditions of
anonymity and in the presence of a group. There was also an Anonymity-Group interaction. Altered
responsibility affected the transgression rate only when both the leader and members were anonymous.
The highest rates of stealing occurred among anonymous children in groups with altered responsibility.”
Contribution
This classic study was the inspiration for my observational study. This article set a precedence for
selecting my setting and observational methodology. It demonstrates the various factors which influence
candy theft (anonymity, assignment of responsibility, and group size).
Abstract 2 (Neal, 1993)
“A recent wave of research promotes the idea that anonymity or deindividuation precipitates
collective behavior. Specifically, anonymous individuals are more likely to participate in collective
behavior events than people among friends and acquaintances. To reconsider this recent resurgence of a
more contemporary contagion theory, we replicate and expand upon Aveni’s (1977) study of crowd
behavior. Our survey data of crowd and collective behavior participants show that anonymity actually
hinders the emergence of collective behavior. Rather, collective behavior participants are more likely to
be in small groups rather than isolated individuals. Our data do suggest that one form
12
of anonymity (i.e., anonymity from formal agents of social control) can facilitate the emergence of
collective behavior.”
Contribution
This article helped me to formulate my research question and hypothesis. It suggests that
anonymous individuals are less likely to engage in anti-social behavior than people who are in small
groups with friends and associates.
Abstract 3 (Mathes & Guest, 1976)
“According to the anonymity explanation of group antisocial behavior, group membership
facilitates antisocial behavior because individuals feel more anonymous in groups than alone. This
explanation was tested in 3 hypotheses: (a) group membership facilitates antisocial behavior, (b) group
membership causes feelings of anonymity, and (c) anonymity facilitates antisocial behavior. 16 male and
10 female college students were asked to state how willing they were to engage in an antisocial behavior
(omitted) under 4 conditions: alone, undisguised; alone, disguised; in a group, undisguised; and in a
group, disguised. Ss were more willing to carry the signs in the groups than alone and disguised than
undisguised. They felt that they would be more anonymous in a group than alone and disguised than
undisguised. All differences were statistically significant. Support was thus found for the 3 hypotheses,
and it is concluded that anonymity is an explanation of group antisocial behavior.”
Contribution
This classic study indicates that participants are much more willing to engage in anti-social
behavior when disguised and within a group. This points to the effects of anonymity on deviant behavior.
This article helped me formulate my hypothesis.
Abstract 4 (Postmes & Spears, 1998)
13
“A meta-analytic integration reviews evidence for deindividuation theory as an explanation
of collective and antinormative behavior. Deindividuation theories propose a subjective deindividuated
state that causes transgression of general social norms. Deindividuation research classically
manipulates anonymity, self-awareness, and group size. Results of 60 independent studies showed little
support for (a) the occurrence of deindividuated (antinormative) behaviors or (b) the existence of a
deindividuated state. Research results were explained more adequately by situation-specific than by
general social norms. Analyses indicated that groups and individuals conform more to situation-specific
norms when they are ‘deindividuated.’ These findings are inconsistent with deindividuation theory but
support a social identity model of deindividuation effects.”
Contribution
Contrary to popular research, this article suggests that deindividuation is not a feasible
explanation for anti-social behavior. Furthermore, it suggests that factors such as anonymity, assignment
of responsibility, and self-awareness do not affect anti-social behavior as much as some research may
indicate. This meta-analysis suggests that deviant behavior is more of a case-by-case decision on the part
of the individual. This article was helpful in providing research which was antithetical to my research
hypothesis. It balances out the literature review and provides a more thorough understanding of research
in the field.
Abstract 5 (Vilanova et al., 2017)
“Deindividuation may be described as the situation in which individuals act in groups and do not
see themselves as individuals, thereby facilitating antinormative behavior. The present article analyzes the
construct deindividuation theory from its conceptualization by Le Bon to the most recent theoretical
model, the Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects. The aim of this study is to compare theories
about deindividuation and to highlight its advances, identify theoretical questions that remain and suggest
future directions for the study of this issue. Recent research conducted on deindividuation may promote
14
prosocial behavior, prevent social disturbance and prevent the development of prejudice among children.
Furthermore, it may provide a feasible way to comprehend and intervene in contemporary social issues.”
Contribution
This article defines deindividuation as it has been presented across various theoretical models. It
details factors which have been shown to promote or inhibit deindividuation. It seeks to compare theories
of deindividuation and points to areas where future research could begin to promote prosocial behavior.
The findings helped form my research question, as well as provided insight into limiting extraneous
variables which might impact my observation results.